FAITH LIKE A RIVER
A Tapestry of Faith Program for Adults
WORKSHOP 2: AGAINST THE FLOW – ORTHODOXY AND HERESY
2011
BY JACKIE CLEMENT ALISON CORNISH
© Copyright 2011 Unitarian Universalist Association.
Published to the Web on 9/29/2014 10:53:03 PM PST.
This program and additional resources are available on the UUA.org web site at
www.uua.org/religiouseducation/curricula/tapestryfaith.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION
He drew a circle that shut me out —
Heretic, rebel, a thing to flout.
But love and I had the wit to win:
We drew a circle that took him in. — Edwin Markham, American poet (1852-1940)
This workshop introduces the terms "orthodoxy" and "heresy" and explores how, throughout history, many of our forebears' have defined their faith in reaction to prevailing powers and dominant ways of thinking. Participants learn about times when tension between ideas or groups led one idea to be declared "heresy" in relation to mainstream or orthodox thinking or practices. Finally, participants consider whether contemporary Unitarian Universalism embraces some "orthodoxies" in theology, in values, or in culture.
Before leading this workshop, review the Accessibility Guidelines for Workshop Presenters in the program Introduction. Make preparations to accommodate individuals who may be in the group.
GOALS
This workshop will:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Participants will:
WORKSHOP-AT-A-GLANCE
Activity | Minutes |
Welcoming and Entering | 0 |
Opening | 5 |
Activity 1: Heresy Word Association | 25 |
Activity 2: Arius the Heretic | 35 |
Activity 3: How Open Is Open? | 35 |
Faith in Action: Orthodoxies and Heresies | |
Closing | 10 |
Alternate Activity 1: An Heretical History | 25 |
Alternate Activity 2: Who's In, and Who's Out? | 25 |
Alternate Activity 3: What Makes a Creed? | 30 |
Alternate Activity 4: The Racovian Catechism | 45 |
SPIRITUAL PREPARATION
Give some thought to these questions so you will arrive at the workshop centered and ready to engage with the material and the group:
You may wish to ask participants to engage in this same spiritual practice so that they, too, arrive at the workshop centered and ready to engage with the material and the group.
WORKSHOP PLAN
WELCOMING AND ENTERING
Materials for Activity
Preparation for Activity
Description of Activity
Welcome everyone to the workshop as they enter. Ask them to sign in, make (or pick up) name tags, and pick up the schedule and time line handouts from the welcome table. Point out the posted agenda for this workshop.
Including All Participants
Write the agenda in large, clear lettering and post it where it will be easily visible to all participants. Provide name tags large enough and markers bold enough so names will be easily visible.
OPENING (5 MINUTES)
Materials for Activity
Preparation for Activity
Description of Activity
Light the chalice with these words of the Rev. Jay F. Abernathy, Jr., used with permission:
This is the flame of freedom.
The hope that glows through all darkness.
The light of truth.
It is our flame — the symbol that unites us with one another and with the heritage passed down the centuries — it is our flame.
A simple candle, humble light.
Known the world over and throughout the ages.
Kept aflame in the hearts and minds — the souls — of countless brothers and sisters in the human family.
It is our flame, it is their flame;
We shall continue to light it —
A free congregation of truth and hope.
Including All Participants
Remind volunteer readers to speak slowly and clearly so all can hear.
ACTIVITY 1: HERESY WORD ASSOCIATION (25 MINUTES)
Materials for Activity
Preparation for Activity
Description of Activity
Invite participants to free-associate with the word "heresy." Record contributions on newsprint. Allow about five minutes for brainstorming.
Then, distribute Handout 1, Definition of Terms, and invite volunteers to read the definitions. Present background information about heresy from Leader Resource1, Background — Heresy.
Invite participants to review the words they offered as responses to the word "heresy" earlier. Ask:
ACTIVITY 2: ARIUS THE HERETIC (35 MINUTES)
Materials for Activity
Preparation for Activity
Description of Activity
Tell or read the story of Arius. You may choose to do this either as a narrative, or to invite participants to reenact the debate.
Emphasize that while contemporary Unitarian Universalists may not hold the same theological beliefs as Arius did, we do share a sympathy for his process of discerning a different teaching and willingness to hold on to his own, known truth. Point out that our sympathy is based on our theological principle that "revelation is not sealed."
Post two sheets of newsprint. Invite participants to list all the big ideas and values on which people in their congregation agree, and another list of the big ideas and values on which there is disagreement. Steer the group away from logistical conflicts such as, whether there should be one service or two. Guide the group, instead, to name theological concepts and values on which congregants agree and disagree.
When the lists seem complete, invite participants to examine the list. Ask:
ACTIVITY 3: HOW OPEN IS OPEN? (35 MINUTES)
Materials for Activity
Preparation for Activity
Description of Activity
If you have obtained an audio recording, play Sweet Honey and the Rock's, "Would You Harbor Me?" for the group.
Distribute the handout with song lyrics. Invite everyone to take their time reading the lyrics and marking lines that particularly touch, trouble, or motivate them.
Ask participants to form groups of three to discuss the questions you have posted on newsprint. Allow ten minutes for this part of the activity.
Re-gather the large group. Invite volunteers to share reflections, observations, and comments from their smaller groups.
CLOSING (10 MINUTES)
Materials for Activity
Preparation for Activity
Description of Activity
Distribute Taking It Home. Announce the date, time, and place of the next workshop and any other "housekeeping" information. Request or remind volunteers if you want participants to read material aloud or perform other roles at the next meeting.
Invite participants to gather around the chalice. Distribute copies of Singing the Living Tradition and lead the group to read in unison Reading 456, "We extinguish this flame," by Elizabeth Selle Jones. Extinguish the chalice.
FAITH IN ACTION: ORTHODOXIES AND HERESIES
Description of Activity
Unitarian Universalists share this with all faiths: We hold high ideals and principles, and yet struggle to match our actions with our vision. Even as we honor our birthright as a community of heretics and celebrate our spiritual ancestors who followed their hearts and consciences to new truths, we sometimes settle—if uneasily or unconsciously—into a position that might be taken as "orthodoxy" in its original meaning: right belief.
Between now and when the group next gathers, pay attention to the formal communications of your congregation, such as your newsletter, bulletin, or website, as well as informal communications such as coffee hour conversations, "parking lot" meetings, and social interactions. Are there "right beliefs" in your congregation? What "orthodoxies" can you discern? Who are your theological insiders and outsiders? Is there room in your Unitarian Universalist circle for all theologies? Discuss your findings with others.
LEADER REFLECTION AND PLANNING
After the workshop, co-leaders should talk together to evaluate this workshop and plan future workshops. Use these questions to guide your shared reflection and planning:
TAKING IT HOME
He drew a circle that shut me out —
Heretic, rebel, a thing to flout.
But love and I had the wit to win:
We drew a circle that took him in. — Edwin Markham, American poet (1852-1940)
Reflect on these questions for your journal: Whom do I include or exclude from my community? Why? Could that exclusion be understood as holding some ideas or beliefs as "orthodox?"
Invite a congregational group of which you are a part to listen to Sweet Honey in the Rock's song "Would you Harbor Me?" and consider the ways in which you are willing to include others. What limits do you place on your willingness to harbor others? Are these limits based on fear of difference? Are there ways to be more inclusive?
ALTERNATE ACTIVITY 1: AN HERETICAL HISTORY (25 MINUTES)
Materials for Activity
Preparation for Activity
Description of Activity
The video, "An Heretical History," traces some of the early streams of thought about the nature of God, Jesus, and salvation that continued through the history of the liberal church, eventually surfacing in Unitarianism and Universalism. Read the transcript from Leader Resource 2. Then, engage a discussion using the posted questions as a guide.
ALTERNATE ACTIVITY 2: WHO'S IN, AND WHO'S OUT (25 MINUTES)
Materials for Activity
Preparation for Activity
Description of Activity
Share with participants:
Charles Edwin Anson Markham (April 23, 1852 - March 7, 1940) was an American poet and a Universalist, known for his artful combination of justice themes with humor in traditional poem forms such as this epigram. "Outwitted" was published in 1915.
Read, in unison, Charles Edwin Markham's poem. Invite participants to share any personal experiences they have had with the poem (for example, some Unitarian Universalist youth groups have printed the text on T-shirts, or designed worship services around the poem's sentiments).
Invite participants to move into groups of three and to discuss the questions you have posted on newsprint. Allow ten minutes for this part of the activity.
Invite participants to rejoin the larger group and share reflections, observations, and comments from their smaller groups with the large group.
ALTERNATE ACTIVITY 3: WHAT MAKES A CREED? (30 MINUTES)
Materials for Activity
Preparation for Activity
Description of Activity
Gather the group. Read or tell the story up to the point of the meeting of the Board. Stop, and ask for volunteers to take on the roles of James Luther Adams, Reverend Leslie Pennington, and several members of the Board including one "oppositional" member. If participants seem reluctant, quietly invite someone to step into a role. Arrange chairs in front of the group for the volunteers and give them the name tags you have prepared. Explain:
Once the role play begins, at any moment a participant not playing a role may say "Freeze!" and stop the conversation. The person who called "Freeze!" may now point to anyone in the role play and take over their role by sitting in their chair and putting on their name tag. The conversation picks up right where it left off.
Begin the role play. Have the volunteer or co-leader model calling "freeze." Allow the role play to continue as long as it seems to create insights and energy, but be sure to save ten or fifteen minutes to process the role play and to share the conclusion of the story.
Process the role play with these questions:
Conclude the discussion. Read the story ending (Part II) aloud.
ALTERNATE ACTIVITY 4: THE RACOVIAN CATECHISM (45 MINUTES)
Materials for Activity
Preparation for Activity
Description of Activity
Invite participants to form pairs and each take three minutes to share with the other any previous experiences they have had with catechisms or other methods of teaching religious creeds.
Then, regather the group and invite general reflections.
Give the context of the Racovian Catechism by reading or summarizing Leader Resource 3, The Racovian Catechism. Then, distribute Handout 3, The Racovian Catechism and invite a volunteer to read aloud the excerpt from the preface.
Ask participants to compare their experiences with catechisms or creeds with the intentions of these authors. Are they the same? Different? How?
Continue reading from the catechism. You might have a volunteer pose all the questions, then have other volunteers take turns reading the responses.
Allow pauses for questions and conversation.
Finally, post the newsprint with questions you have prepared. Invite general conversation in response to these questions.
FAITH LIKE A RIVER: WORKSHOP 2:
STORY: ARIUS THE HERETIC
By Gail Forsyth-Vail, in Stories in Faith: Exploring Our Unitarian Universalist Principles and Sources Through Wisdom Tales (Boston: UUA, 2007).
Arius, a Libyan priest, lived in the 4th century, a time when the leaders of the Christian church, freed from persecution by the Edict of Milan in 312, were engaging in debates about the nature of humanity and the nature of Jesus. The Roman Empire was in crisis, pressured on many fronts by those who threatened to overrun it. There was a strong need to unify the Christian Church under the sovereignty of a protective savior. The Emperor Constantine viewed uniting the Christian Church as a way to strengthen and unify the Roman Empire and to bring order to the outlying areas. The endless religious debates, often leading to violence between partisans and riots in the street, were a source of significant annoyance to Constantine. In 325 he convened a council at his summer residence at Nicaea, in what is now Turkey, insisting that the bishops agree on a creed that would bring unity to the church. By the close of the Council of Nicaea, the Roman state and the Christian Church had reached a mutual understanding, with the emperor playing a significant role in the church and the church a significant role in the empire. The priest Arius believed that Jesus was divine but somewhat less so than God. He believed that Jesus' wisdom and teachings were more important than his death and resurrection. Arius believed that human beings could draw closer to God by following those teachings. As the Christian Church solidified and unified in the fourth century and adopted a Trinitarian theology, Arianism became the archetypal heresy for the orthodox.
There came a time when the Emperor Constantine had had it with all the arguing. As head of the vast Roman Empire, he called a halt to the persecutions and killings of those people known as Christians. The Christians were followers of Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish prophet who had been put to death almost three hundred years earlier. They were known for taking care of one another, and of the poor, the sick, widows, and children in need of help. Constantine was interested in these Christians and their new religion—if only they would stop arguing!
The real trouble was in a place called Alexandria, in Egypt. There was a priest named Arius who was in charge of part of the Christian Church in Alexandria. He was tremendously popular, in part because he was also a poet and a singer. He sometimes taught or preached by putting lessons into poems and songs, which was much more fun and interesting for the people than just plain words. He was a favorite of sailors, dockworkers, and young people. Many flocked to hear him speak. They were convinced that following Jesus would help them to get closer to God. After all, Arius told them that Jesus had started out as a human being who was so holy that God had adopted him as a son.
Alexander, the main bishop of the city, was Arius's superior. He had a different idea about Jesus. He said that Jesus had been one with God since the very beginning, and that when he was on earth, he was God living as a human being. This bishop taught that people were basically sinful and that Jesus had come to earth and lived and died in order to save people from their wrongdoing. He also said that Arius was a heretic, which meant that Arius was preaching things that were different from what most bishops and church leaders believed to be true.
So arguments began and continued. Every day people debated at the market and in the public square. Sometimes there were even fistfights and riots about which view was the right one, Alexander's or Arius's. Word of all this reached the Emperor Constantine, and he wanted the fighting stopped. It wasn't good for the empire if people were rioting in the streets, so Constantine decided to settle it once and for all. He called a council and invited all of the bishops in the empire to spend some months at his summer residence in Nicea, right beside a beautiful lake in what is now the country of Turkey.
And so the bishops arrived in May at this wonderful summer residence. Many traveled for a long time to get there, coming by ship and then overland to Nicea. Everything was ready for their arrival. Servants made sure that the food and drink were prefect and that the guests were truly pampered. The emperor looked resplendent in purple robes with gold adornment. He told the bishops to make up their minds about this question of Jesus. After this council, there was to be no more arguing! He wanted a strong Roman empire with one religion. Constantine meant to enforce whatever the decision was with the power of this empire.
Alexander and his supporters spoke. They presented parts of the songs and poetry Arius had written, to prove he was a dangerous heretic, maybe even an agent of the devil. By the time they had finished, all but two of the hundred bishops were on Alexander's side, condemning Arius. Arius himself was not allowed to speak because he was only a priest, not a bishop. While they spent a few weeks enjoying the delights of the lakeside summer home, the bishops wrote a creed for the Christian Church, a set of beliefs that everyone needed to agree to in order to belong. All were required to sign it. Arius and the two bishops who supported him refused to sign it. They were declared heretics and sent into exile.
There were a few more councils and lots more violence over the next few years. Arius was in and out of trouble during that whole period of time, but he never gave up on what he thought was right and true. On the day he died, quite suddenly, he was with friends and foes, still holding fast to what he believed.
FAITH LIKE A RIVER: WORKSHOP 2:
STORY: WHAT MAKES A CREED?
Adapted from the Tapestry of Faith story "James Luther Adams," by Jessica York.
Present the story Introduction and Part I, reading aloud up to the point marked "STOP." Then, lead a role play and discussion as instructed in Alternate Activity 3, Description of Activity. Following the discussion, read the conclusion of the story (Part II) aloud.
Introduction
Unitarian Universalism is a living faith. We think that people should be free to believe what they must believe—the truth of their life experiences—instead of professing belief in what they are told to believe. This is what we mean when we say ours is a "creedless" religion. Creeds are often associated with "orthodoxy," or "straight teaching." Those who do not agree with the beliefs stated in the creed are often labeled as "heterodoxical," or even "heretical."
Being a living faith means that any one of us can change what we believe, if we experience a deeper truth that contradicts our previous beliefs. But in order to change, we must be open to new thoughts, new ideas, and new experiences. We have to have our ears open to hear the experiences of the people with whom we share community. There is a saying that people were created with two ears and one mouth because we should listen twice as much as we speak. When we come together in community, we have the opportunity to listen to each other and gain a perspective greater than what we would have alone.
Sometimes we listen with our ears. When you are a part of a sacred, beloved community you listen not only with your ears, but also with your heart.
Part I
In 1948, most congregations and houses of worship in the United States were segregated by the color of their members' skin. Some were segregated by law; others by custom or by a lack of actively trying to welcome and include all people. The First Unitarian Society of Chicago was one of these congregations. Although their church was located in a neighborhood with many African Americans, only whites could join, according to the written bylaws of the church, and according to custom.
The day came that many members began to believe that if they really wanted to live their values and principles, they needed to take action against racism. The minister, the Reverend Leslie Pennington, was ready for this day and ready to take action. So was James Luther Adams, a well-known and respected liberal theologian and social ethicist. Adams taught at the Meadville Lombard Theological School, right across the street from the First Unitarian Society of Chicago. And he was a member of the congregation's Board of Directors.
Reverend Pennington and James Luther Adams joined with others to propose a change in the church's bylaws to desegregate the church. They saw this as a way to put their love into action.
But in 1948, desegregation—in fact, anything about skin color and racism—was controversial. Some people, even some of those who supported African Americans in demanding their civil liberties, believed in a separate, but equal policy.
When the congregation's Board considered the desegregation proposal, most of them supported it. However, one member of the Board objected. "Your new program is making desegregation into a creed," he said. "You are asking everyone in our church to say they believe desegregating, or inviting, even recruiting people of color to attend church here, is a good way to tackle racism. What if some members don't believe this?"
Respectful debate ensued at the First Unitarian Society of Chicago. Both sides felt, in their hearts, that their belief was right. Perhaps they were so busy trying to be heard they forgot to listen. And so, they kept on talking.
(Facilitator: Stop here. If you choose to, stage a role play of the preceding part of the story, as described in Alternate Activity 3, What Makes a Creed?)
Part II
The debate went on in the Board of Directors' meeting until the early hours of the morning. Everyone was exhausted and frustrated. Finally, James Luther Adams remembered that we should be listening twice as much as talking. He asked the person who had voiced the strongest objection, "What do you say is the purpose of this church?"
Suddenly, everyone was listening. Everyone wanted to hear the answer to this crucial question. Probably, the person who objected was listening especially hard to his own heart, as well as to the words he had heard from other Board members through the long discussion.
The Board member who opposed opening the church to people of color finally replied. "Okay, Jim. The purpose of this church is to get hold of people like me and change them."
The First Unitarian Society of Chicago successfully desegregated.
FAITH LIKE A RIVER: WORKSHOP 2:
HANDOUT 1: DEFINITION OF TERMS
Orthodoxy — from Greek, orthodoxos, from orthos, "right," and doxa, "belief"
Ideas held to be the standard of right belief. A standard of orthodoxy may be established by authority (the judgment of others), tradition (the test of time), testimony (written documentation), or reason (personal experience).
Heterodoxy — from Greek, heteros, "other," and doxa, "belief"
Those beliefs outside or counter to the accepted body of teaching.
Heresy — from Greek, hairesis, "choice"
A view chosen instead of the official teaching of a church, which is thus considered wrong or potentially dangerous.
FAITH LIKE A RIVER: WORKSHOP 2:
HANDOUT 2: WOULD YOU HARBOR ME? LYRICS
Words and music by Ysaye M. Barnwell, (C) 1994 Barnwell's Notes Publishing, recorded by Sweet Honey in the Rock (R). Used with permission. Visit Ysaye M. Barnwell's website for more information.
Would you harbor me?
Would I harbor you?
Would you harbor me?
Would I harbor you?
Would you harbor a Christian, a Muslim, a Jew
a heretic, convict or spy?
Would you harbor a run away woman, or child,
a poet, a prophet, a king?
Would you harbor an exile, or a refugee,
a person living with AIDS?
Would you harbor a Tubman, a Garrett, a Truth
a fugitive or a slave?
Would you harbor a Haitian Korean or Czech,
a lesbian or a gay?
Would you harbor me?
Would I harbor you?
Would you harbor me?
Would I harbor you?
FAITH LIKE A RIVER: WORKSHOP 2:
HANDOUT 3: THE RACOVIAN CATECHISM
Excerpts from an 1818 imprint which can be viewed in its entirety online:
Rees, Thomas, The Racovian Catechism, with notes and illustrations; translated from the Latin. To which is prefixed a sketch of the history of Unitarianism in Poland and the adjacent countries (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown, 1818).
From the Preface
To the Pious Reader, Health and favour from God, the Father, and our Lord Jesus Christ.
We here publish a Catechism, or Institute of the Christian Religion, drawn from the Holy Scriptures, as it is professed by our Church. It must not be thought, because in many things it departs from the standard of all other Christians, that, in sending it forth to the public, differing in their perceptions upon all matters, we intend, as it were by a herald, to proclaim hostility, or sound the trumpet for combat...
It was not without reason that Hilary, Bishop of Poictiers, heavily complained of old, that after the Council of Nice (Nicea) nothing was written but CREEDS, and these indeed annually and monthly; "by which," he observes, "one after another, we are bitten until we are almost devoured... "
It is not without just cause that many pious and learned men complain at present also, that the Confessions and Catechisms which are now put forth, and published by different Christian Churches, are hardly any thing else than apples of Eris, trumpets of discord, ensigns of immortal enmities and factions among men. The reason of this is, that those Confessions and Catechisms are proposed in such a manner that the conscience is bound by them, that a yoke is imposed upon Christians to swear to the words and opinions of men; and that they are established as a Rule of Faith, from which, every one who deviates in the least is immediately assailed by the thunderbolt of an anathema, is treated as a heretic, as a most vile and mischievous person, is excluded from heaven, consigned to hell, and doomed to be tormented with infernal fires.
Far be from us this disposition, or rather this madness. Whilst we compose a Catechism, we prescribe nothing to any man: whilst we declare our own opinions, we oppress no one. Let every person enjoy the freedom of his own judgment in religion; only let it be permitted to us also to exhibit our view of divine things, without injuring and calumniating others...
Of the Authenticity of the Holy Scriptures...
But how do you prove that the Christian Religion is true?
First, from the divinity of its author, and secondly, from the nature and circumstances of the Religion itself; for these all demonstrate that it is divine, and consequently true.
Whence does it appear that Jesus Christ, the author of the Christian Religion, was divine?
From the truly divine miracles which he wrought and also from this circumstance, that after having submitted to the most cruel death, on account of the religion he had taught, God raised him again to life...
You have proved from its author that the Christian Religion is divine. I wish you now to do the same from the nature of the Religion itself.
This appears from its precepts and promises; which are of so sublime a kind, and so far surpass the inventive powers of the human mind, that they could have had no author but God himself. For its precepts inculcate a celestial holiness of life, and its promises comprehend the heavenly and everlasting happiness of man...
How do you prove from its rise that the Christian Religion is divine?
This you will readily perceive when you consider who the first founders of this Religion were; men of mean birth, held in universal contempt; aided by no power or wealth, by no worldly wisdom or authority, in converting others to their doctrine...
Of what use then is right reason, if it be of any, in those matters which relate to salvation?
It is, indeed, of great service, since without it we could neither perceive with certainty the authority of the sacred writings, understand their contents, discriminate one thing from another, nor apply them to any practical purpose. When therefore I stated that the Holy Scriptures were sufficient for our salvation, so far from excluding right reason, I certainly assumed its presence.
If then such be the state of the case, what need is there of Traditions, which, by the Church of Rome, are pronounced to be necessary to salvation, and which it denominates the unwritten word of God?
You rightly perceive, that they are not necessary to salvation.
What then is to be thought concerning them?
That some of them are not to be reckoned under the name of traditions, in the sense in which the Papists employ them, but that many of them were not only invented, without just reason, but are also productive of great injury to the Christian Faith...
Concerning those things which constitute the way of salvation.
What do you understand by the term GOD?
The supreme Lord of all things.
And whom do you denominate Supreme?
Him, who, in his own right, has dominion over all things, and is dependent upon no other being in the administration of his government.
What does this dominion comprise?
A right and supreme authority to determine whatever he may choose (and he cannot choose what is in its own nature evil and unjust) in respect to us and to
all other things, and also in respect to those matters which no other authority can reach ; such as are our thoughts, though concealed in the inmost recesses of
our hearts ; for which he can at pleasure ordain laws, and appoint rewards and punishments...
What are the things relating to the nature of God, the knowledge of which is necessary to salvation?
They are the following: first, That God is; secondly, That he is one only; thirdly. That he is eternal; and fourthly, That he is perfectly just, wise, and powerful.
FAITH LIKE A RIVER: WORKSHOP 2:
LEADER RESOURCE 1: BACKGROUND — HERESY
Author Leonard Levy, in his book Blasphemy, notes that "heresy" is not a Hebrew term. In fact, there is no equivalent for it in the Pre-Christian era. Heresy, a view not consistent with the church, depends entirely on the existence of an orthodox religion.
Both orthodoxy and heresy were foreign ideas to the earliest Christians, who lived with a variety of interpretations of the Gospels and church practices depending on locale and local teaching. All that ended in the late 4th century C.E. Several factors contributed to the change. In 313 C.E., after Constantine united the empire, Christianity became the state religion. Constantine saw a unified creed or dogma as essential to a unified empire, and, importantly, the lack of such a creed as a threat to power. This political and strategic goal dovetailed neatly with a growing crisis in Christian thought, which struggled with the need to define a new religion in such a way as to retain the unity of God without sacrificing the divinity of Christ. Early church theologians had to get the doctrine right, not only for the future of the church, but because the "right path" to salvation was at stake.
A series of ecumenical councils, starting in 325 at Nicea, set out to establish the consistent doctrine of the Church, a creed for all. As a result, for the first time, Christians began to persecute one another for differences of opinion and faith. If one were found to hold views inconsistent with the teaching of the church, or heresy, they could be charged with crimes against both the church and state. Levy writes:
Within 15 years of 380 (just prior to the Council of Constantinople), imperial edicts deprived all heretics and pagans of the right to worship, banned them from civil offices, exposed them to heavy fines, confiscation of property, banishment and in certain cases, death. By 435, there were sixty-six laws against Christian heretics plus many others against pagans. The purpose of persecution was to convert the heretics and heathen, thus establishing uniformity.
Note that this uniformity was not just a matter of church but also a matter of the state. A cohesive church served as the basis for a uniform, strong political state.
Writers on Unitarian, Universalist, and Unitarian Universalist history have long pointed to these early heretics as our "spiritual ancestors," meaning that though we hold little in common with them in terms of theological belief, we do share a sympathetic understanding of the process of discerning a different teaching of the right to holding that different point of view as valid.
In considering "orthodoxy," "heterodoxy," and "heresy," it's important to reflect not only on the winners and losers of the arguments, but how posterity has recorded the discussions. For example, all of Arius' writings were destroyed. We know about his views only from those who condemned them.
FAITH LIKE A RIVER: WORKSHOP 2:
LEADER RESOURCE 2: AN HERETICAL HISTORY
From the video Unitarian Universalism: An Heretical History, produced by the Unitarian Universalist Church of Rockford, IL, 1995. Used with permission.
Transcript:
The roots of Unitarian Universalism begin at the time of Jesus of Nazareth. We sometimes forget that the earliest followers of Jesus were Jews, not Christians. They were Jewish working people who saw their leader in the context of the tradition of the Jewish prophets—Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Jonah, and Micah. As the influence of Jesus spread, supernatural ideas, expectations and interpretations began to be attached to people's understanding of who he was. In the gospel of Mark, Jesus is recorded as having asked his followers who people said he was, and they had a variety of responses. The book of Acts clearly records the struggle between the Jewish and Greek Christians, who it reports had no small dissention and debate because of their conflicting expectations of what it meant to be followers of Jesus.
People in the early centuries of the Christian Church held diverse ideas of who Jesus had been. Some, like the teacher Arius and his followers, believed Jesus to have been separate from the father God, while others, under the leadership of Athanasius, insisted that Jesus was, and always had been, God. And there were other views also.
The conversion of the Roman Emperor Constantine changed Christianity. Constantine who wanted to use the religion to bring unity to his empire, insisted that a council of the Christian bishops to be called to resolve for once and for all who Jesus was—God or man—and what Christians had to believe to be Christians. That Council was held in the city of Nicea in the year 325 under the protection and intimidation of Roman troops. Not surprisingly, the Council agreed with the position of the emperor's bishop and adopted what Christians know as the Nicean Creed, which affirms the teaching that God is three in one, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, belief in what is known as the Trinity. There were those who believed that God was only one and not three. They were known as unitarians because of their insistence on the unity of God, and they were declared by the Council to be heretics.
Actually, ten years later, a Council held at Tyre restored the unitarian view as church teaching and Athanasius was exiled. And then in 381 the Council of Constantinople decided for once and for all in favor of a belief in the three-person God as central to Christianity. Throughout the years, there have, however, been Christian scholars who insisted they could find no scriptural basis for the teaching of the Trinity.
Another ancient Christian controversy was over the teaching of eternal punishment. Some Christians, like the teachers Origen and Clement of Alexandria, insisted that the loving god whom Jesus called Father would never condemn his children to an eternal hell. This teaching of universal salvation was declared a heresy in 544.
Because unitarianism and universalism were outside the mainstream and were not organized, when we trace our history we tend to include many who rebelled against the religious establishment as being spiritual ancestors, even if they weren't specifically unitarian or universalist in their beliefs, but because they were people who chose to follow their consciences.
FAITH LIKE A RIVER: WORKSHOP 2:
LEADER RESOURCE 3: THE RACOVIAN CATECHISM
The Racovian Catechism was first published in 1605 in Rakow, Poland, the center of 16th-century Polish Unitarianism, the only town in the world where Unitarians were in the religious majority. From the mid-sixteenth century, inhabitants of this area had enjoyed nearly unprecedented freedom of belief. The Catechism, largely the work of Faustus Socinus, was written both to provide instruction to those who were Unitarians, and also information for those outside the tradition. It was translated into German in 1608, and Latin, with a "dedication" (actually, more of a challenge) to James I of England, in 1609. According to Mark Harris,
The Catechism reflected a strong emphasis on following the ethical teachings of Jesus and the Ten Commandments and also commented extensively on social relations within the state. Rather than a teaching tool for children, it was a summary of church beliefs in question-and-answer format.
Unfortunately, the flourishing Unitarian community, including its publishing arm, was nearly completely destroyed in 1638. Subsequently, Catholicism was reestablished as the dominant religion in Rakow, a part of the counterreformation efforts in Eastern Europe.
Even after the devastation of Poland's Unitarian community, the Catechism continued to be printed in new translations. In 1651, a new edition in Latin was published in London, only to be followed in 1652 by a resolution of the British Parliament that required the Sheriffs of London and Middlesex to seize and burn all known copies. Later that same year, the first English translation, likely the work of John Biddle, was published.
FIND OUT MORE
Two Unitarian Universalist Association Commission on Appraisal reports address issues raised in this workshop:
Belonging: The Meaning of Membership (at www25.uua.org/coa/reports_issued.html) (Boston: UUA, 2001)
Engaging Our Theological Diversity (at www.uua.org/documents/coa/engagingourtheodiversity.pdf) (Boston, UUA, 2005)
Here are resources for exploring orthodoxy and heresy in Christian history:
Irvin, Dale T. and Scott W. Sunquist. History of the World Christian Movement, Vol. I: Earliest Christianity to 1453 (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2001)
Levy, Leonard Williams, Blasphemy (University of North Carolina Press, 1995)